The possibility of creating anti-gravity depends upon a complete understanding and description of gravity and its interactions with other physical theories, such as general relativity and quantum mechanics; as of 2022 physicists have yet to discover a quantum theory of gravity.
anti gravity theory pdf download
During the summer of 1666, Isaac Newton observed an apple (variety Flower of Kent) falling from the tree in his garden, thus realizing the principle of universal gravitation.[3] Albert Einstein in 1915 considered the physical interaction between matter and space, where gravity occurs as a consequence of matter causing a geometric deformation of space which is otherwise flat.[4][5][6] Einstein, both independently and with Walther Mayer, attempted to unify his theory of gravity with electromagnetism using the work of Theodor Kaluza[7] and James Clerk Maxwell to link gravity and quantum field theory.[8]
Theoretical quantum physicists have postulated the existence of a quantum gravity particle, the graviton. Various theoretical explanations of quantum gravity have been created, these include superstring theory, loop quantum gravity, E8 theory and asymptotic safety theory amongst many others.
In Newton's law of universal gravitation, gravity was an external force transmitted by unknown means. In the 20th century, Newton's model was replaced by general relativity where gravity is not a force but the result of the geometry of spacetime. Under general relativity, anti-gravity is impossible except under contrived circumstances.[9][10][11]
General relativity was introduced in the 1910s, but development of the theory was greatly slowed by a lack of suitable mathematical tools.[clarification needed] It appeared that anti-gravity was outlawed under general relativity.
Military support for anti-gravity projects was terminated by the Mansfield Amendment of 1973, which restricted Department of Defense spending to only the areas of scientific research with explicit military applications. The Mansfield Amendment was passed specifically to end long-running projects that had little to show for their efforts.
Under general relativity, gravity is the result of following spatial geometry (change in the normal shape of space) caused by local mass-energy. This theory holds that it is the altered shape of space, deformed by massive objects, that causes gravity, which is actually a property of deformed space rather than being a true force. Although the equations cannot normally produce a "negative geometry", it is possible to do so by using "negative mass". The same equations do not, of themselves, rule out the existence of negative mass.
Both general relativity and Newtonian gravity appear to predict that negative mass would produce a repulsive gravitational field. In particular, Sir Hermann Bondi proposed in 1957 that negative gravitational mass, combined with negative inertial mass, would comply with the strong equivalence principle of general relativity theory and the Newtonian laws of conservation of linear momentum and energy. Bondi's proof yielded singularity-free solutions for the relativity equations.[18] In July 1988, Robert L. Forward presented a paper at the AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE 24th Joint Propulsion Conference that proposed a Bondi negative gravitational mass propulsion system.[19]
Under general relativity any form of energy couples with spacetime to create the geometries that cause gravity. A longstanding question was whether or not these same equations applied to antimatter. The issue was considered solved in 1960 with the development of CPT symmetry, which demonstrated that antimatter follows the same laws of physics as "normal" matter, and therefore has positive energy content and also causes (and reacts to) gravity like normal matter (see gravitational interaction of antimatter).
For much of the last quarter of the 20th century, the physics community was involved in attempts to produce a unified field theory, a single physical theory that explains the four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces. Scientists have made progress in unifying the three quantum forces, but gravity has remained "the problem" in every attempt. This has not stopped any number of such attempts from being made, however.
Generally these attempts tried to "quantize gravity" by positing a particle, the graviton, that carried gravity in the same way that photons (light) carry electromagnetism. Simple attempts along this direction all failed, however, leading to more complex examples that attempted to account for these problems. Two of these, supersymmetry and the relativity related supergravity, both required the existence of an extremely weak "fifth force" carried by a graviphoton, which coupled together several "loose ends" in quantum field theory, in an organized manner. As a side effect, both theories also all but required that antimatter be affected by this fifth force in a way similar to anti-gravity, dictating repulsion away from mass. Several experiments were carried out in the 1990s to measure this effect, but none yielded positive results.[20]
In 2013 CERN looked for an antigravity effect in an experiment designed to study the energy levels within antihydrogen. The antigravity measurement was just an "interesting sideshow" and was inconclusive.[21]
There have been a number of attempts to build anti-gravity devices, and a small number of reports of anti-gravity-like effects in the scientific literature. None of the examples that follow are accepted as reproducible examples of anti-gravity.
Gyroscopes produce a force when twisted that operates "out of plane" and can appear to lift themselves against gravity. Although this force is well understood to be illusory, even under Newtonian models, it has nevertheless generated numerous claims of anti-gravity devices and any number of patented devices. None of these devices have ever been demonstrated to work under controlled conditions, and have often become the subject of conspiracy theories as a result.
Electrogravitics is a popular topic in ufology, anti-gravity, free energy, with government conspiracy theorists and related websites, in books and publications with claims that the technology became highly classified in the early 1960s and that it is used to power UFOs and the B-2 bomber.[29] There is also research and videos on the internet purported to show lifter-style capacitor devices working in a vacuum, therefore not receiving propulsion from ion drift or ion wind being generated in air.[29][30]
The Institute for Gravity Research of the Göde Scientific Foundation has tried to reproduce many of the different experiments which claim any "anti-gravity" effects. All attempts by this group to observe an anti-gravity effect by reproducing past experiments have been unsuccessful thus far. The foundation has offered a reward of one million euros for a reproducible anti-gravity experiment.[44]
These lecture notes provide a detailed introduction to the bosonic string and conformal field theory, aimed at "Part III" (i.e. masters level) students. The full set of lectures notes can be downloaded here and weigh in at around 210 pages. Individual sections can be downloaded below.
We remark that Ostrogradsky ghosts in higher-derivative gravity, with a finite number of derivatives, are fictitious as they result from an unjustified truncation performed in a complete theory containing infinitely many curvature invariants. The apparent ghosts can then be projected out of the quadratic gravity spectrum by redefining the boundary conditions of the theory in terms of an integration contour that does not enclose the ghost poles. This procedure does not alter the renormalizability of the theory. One can thus use quadratic gravity as a quantum field theory of gravity that is both renormalizable and unitary.
Despite the major advances in the quantization of gravity obtained in the past few decades, a deep understanding of quantum gravity in the UV remains a matter of debate. General relativity is known to be non-renormalizable, generating higher curvature invariants in the action, which are required for renormalization [1]. However, by introducing higher-derivative terms, ghosts inevitably appear in the spectrum unless the theory is treated under the effective field theory formalism where the higher derivatives are seen as perturbations [2, 3]. The purpose of this paper is to remark that Ostrogradskian ghosts in higher-derivative gravity are only apparent when one truncates the infinite series of curvature invariants. We then show how these ghosts can be removed by means of a suitable boundary condition.
The idea of embedding higher-derivative gravity into a theory with infinite curvature invariants is not new. This idea has been in fact a steppingstone for the infinite derivative gravity, whose gravitational propagator is defined to be an entire function with a single pole at vanishing momentum [9,10,11,12]. This guarantees from the onset that no particle (ghost or otherwise) other than the graviton is present. Asymptotically safe gravity also benefits from the same idea of embedding a finite truncation of the action into a complete theory with infinitely many terms. It thus shares the problems with ghosts, which could also be solved by an entire function extension of the propagator. In the asymptotic safety scenario, there is also the possibility that the ghost mass goes to infinity as the theory approaches the non-trivial fixed point [13]. In this limit, the ghost would then decouple from the theory.
which increases without limit with the number of loops p. This problem is circumvented within the realm of effective field theories [3] (see [18] for a review). In the effective field theory description of quantum gravity, terms in the action are organized in powers of \(E/M_\mathrmp\), where E is the typical energy of the problem. Dimensional analysis shows that higher-order curvatures correspond to higher powers of the \(E/M_\mathrmp\), thus at energies way below the Planck scale the higher powers of the curvature are utterly small and can be treated as tiny perturbations. Thus at any given precision, the infinite series can be truncated, producing only a finite number of free parameters. In this scenario, there is no new degree of freedom, ghost or otherwise, besides the standard graviton and the interaction is that of general relativity. The higher-order terms capture the underlying physics perturbatively and only contribute to the vertices of Feynman diagrams, not to the propagators. As a result, one obtains a theory that can be renormalized, albeit being non-renormalizable, at every loop order without introducing ghosts to the spectrum, but that only makes sense at energies below the Planck scale. 2ff7e9595c
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